Early in the Middle Ages, surnames were not commonly used. Most people were known by a single given name. However, as populations grew, especially in towns and cities, the need to distinguish between individuals with the same first name arose.

By the 12th and 13th centuries, surnames began to develop. These were often based on:

• Patronymics: Names derived from the father’s name, such as “Johnson” (son of John) or the Gaelic “MacDonald” (son of Donald).
   

• Occupations: Names like Smith (blacksmith), Baker, or Carpenter reflected a person’s job.
   

• Geographical origins: People might be called after their village, town, or a prominent geographical feature—like “Atwood” (near the woods) or “Hill.”
   

• Nicknames or physical traits: Names describing a person’s characteristics, such as “Short,” “Brown,” or “Strong.”
   

Surnames gradually became hereditary, passing from one generation to the next, helping to identify families and lineages.

 Titles and Epithets

Especially among the nobility, individuals often bore titles reflecting their rank or role—such as “Sir,” “Duke,” “Count,” or “Lady.” Kings and queens used regnal numbers or epithets to distinguish themselves, for example, Richard the Lionheart or William the Conqueror.

Epithets could also describe a person’s reputation, appearance, or deeds, often recorded by chroniclers. For example, “Harold Godwinson” was sometimes called “Harold II,” and nicknames like “the Fair,” “the Bold,” or “the Cruel” were common  shutdown123